Seasonal crop diversity and its role in agricultural sustainability and food security in Afghanistan
Abstract
Crops are the cornerstone of human nutrition, economic development, and agricultural sustainability. The classification of crops into Kharif, Rabi, and Zaid based on their growing seasons reflects the importance of seasonal planning for optimizing agricultural productivity. Kharif crops, including rice, maize, and cotton, are usually sown at the beginning of the monsoon rainy season and harvested at the end of the rainy season. Rabi crops such as wheat, mustard, and peas grow during the cooler winter months, while Zaid crops such as watermelon and cucumber grow during the transition period between Rabi and Kharif. The success of these cropping systems depends on multiple agro-ecological factors, including climate, soil type, irrigation conditions, and seed varieties. Advances in irrigation technology, pest and disease management, and high-yield crop varieties have significantly increased food production capacity and strengthened resilience to climate change. In addition, strategically selecting and rotating crops not only improves soil fertility and reduces pest and disease pressure, but also supports livestock rearing in mixed farm systems, especially in regions such as Afghanistan. Crops not only ensure nutrient availability but also drive rural employment and export opportunities. However, challenges such as climate change, land degradation, and water scarcity threaten continued production. Therefore, it is crucial to combine traditional practices with modern technologies and policy support.
Full Text:
PDFReferences
Ahmad, F., Ristina Siti Sundari, Ahmad, J., & Arshad, A. (2021). The financial analysis of nitrogen fertilizers and planting systems and its implications on maize agribusiness: Evidence from Peshawar, Pakistan. Journal of Socioeconomics and Development, 4(1), 145–145. https://doi.org/10.31328/jsed.v4i1.2197
Ali, Z., Khan, H., Shah, S. A., & Ahmad, I. (2010). Evaluation of Leguminous Forage Crops for Nodulation, Nitrogen Fixation and Quality Yield. American-Asian-Journal of Agricultural & Environmental Sciences/American-Eurasian Journal of Agricultural & Environmental Sciences, 9(3), 269–272.
Ameri, S.A., Deering, A.J., & McNamara, K. (2018). The Economic Benefits of Small-Holder Use of Hermetic Storage for Wheat in Afghanistan. https://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.283867
Amini, S. Y., Nabizada, A. Q., & Noorı, M. S. (2024). Effects of Integrated Nitrogen Fertilization and Weed Management on Growth and Grain Yield of Sorghum Hybrid CS-200. Journal of Agriculture. https://doi.org/10.46876/ja.1551571
Amirzai, S., & Chau, V. S. (2024). Alternative Food Networks in Afghanistan: The Role of Collaborative Agribusiness in Food Security. Economia Agro-Alimentare, 2, 167–187. https://doi.org/10.3280/ecag2024oa17272
Ananna, F. H., Amin, M. G. M., Islam, D., Ahmed, T., Ashrafuzzaman, Md., & Aziz, M. G. (2021). Groundwater contamination risks with manure-borne microorganisms under different land-application options. Water Science and Engineering, 14(4), 314–322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wse.2021.11.001
Ather, D., Muhammad, S., & Ali, W. (2022). Fluoride and nitrate contaminations of groundwater and potential health risks assessment in the Khyber district, North-Western Pakistan. International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2022.2098475
B.C.G. Kamanga. (2002). Farmer experimentation to assess the potential of legumes in maize-based cropping systems in malawi. In CIMMYT eBooks.
Bouwman, L., Goldewijk, K.K., Van der Hoek, K.W., Beusen, A.H., van Vuuren, D.P., Willems, J., Rufino, M.C., & Stehfest, E. (2011). Exploring global changes in nitrogen and phosphorus cycles in agriculture induced by livestock production over the 1900–2050 period. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110, 20882 - 20887. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1012878108
Cameron, K. C., Di, H. J., & Moir, J. L. (2013). Nitrogen losses from the soil/plant system: a review. Annals of Applied Biology, 162(2), 145–173. https://doi.org/10.1111/aab.12014
Campillo, R.R., Urquiaga, C.S., Pino, N.I., & Montenegro, B.A. (2003). INVESTIGACIÓN - ESTIMACIÓN DE LA FIJACIÓN BIOLÓGICA DE NITRÓGENO EN LEGUMINOSAS FORRAJERAS MEDIANTE LA METODOLOGÃA DEL 15N (Estimation of biological nitrogen fixation in forage legumes using a 15N labeling methodology).
Cang Heng-jin. (2004). NITROGEN LOSSES FROM FARMLAND AND AGRICULTURAL NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION. Tropical Geography.
Chemaitelly, H., Mahmud, S., Rahmani, A.M., & Abu-Raddad, L.J. (2015). The epidemiology of hepatitis C virus in Afghanistan: systematic review and meta-analysis. International journal of infectious diseases: IJID: official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases, 40, 54-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2015.09.011
Coke, A. (2004). Wheat Seed and Agriculture Programming in Afghanistan: Its Potential to Impact on Livelihoods.
Dalias, P., & Neocleous, D. (2017). Comparative Analysis of the Nitrogen Effect of Common Agricultural Practices and Rotation Systems in a Rainfed Mediterranean Environment. Plants, 6(4), 61. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants6040061
Faizy, H., Azimi, A., Alam, S., Safari, Z. S., & Atif, A. (2022). Food Safety Status on Poultry Meat and Egg in Afghanistan. AgroTech Food Science, Technology and Environment, 1(1), 57–60. https://doi.org/10.53797/agrotech.v1i1.8.2022
Fanjaniaina, M. L., Stark, F., Ramarovahoaka, N. P., Rakotoharinaivo, J. F., Rafolisy, T., Salgado, P., & Becquer, T. (2022). Nutrient Flows and Balances in Mixed Farming Systems in Madagascar. Sustainability, 14(2), 984. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14020984
Givens, D. I. (1995). Forage quality, evaluation and utilization. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 56(1-2), 181–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/0377-8401(95)90027-6
Habibi, S., Yasuda, M., Aryan, S., Yokoyama, T., Kalimullah Saighani, & Naoko Ohkama-Ohtsu. (2024). Insights into Genetic and Physiological Characteristics of Clover Rhizobia in Afghanistan Soils. Applied Microbiology, 4(1), 112–123. https://doi.org/10.3390/applmicrobiol4010008
Hashimi, R., Matsuura, E., & Komatsuzaki, M. (2020). Effects of Cultivating Rice and Wheat with and without Organic Fertilizer Application on Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Soil Quality in Khost, Afghanistan. Sustainability, 12(16), 6508. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12166508
Heavenlin, N. M., Christy, I. Kanitha., & None C.Gunasekaran. (2015). DETECTION OF NITRATE ACCUMULATION IN FORAGE CROP (SORGHUM) OF SALEM DISTRICT. EPH - International Journal of Science and Engineering, 1(1), 26–28. https://doi.org/10.53555/eijse.v1i1.21
Hentz, P., Carvalho, N.L., Luz, L.A., & Barcellos, A.L. (2014). Ciclagem de Nitrogênio em Sistemas de Integração Lavoura-Pecuária Nitrogen cycling in crop-livestock systems. https://doi.org/10.5902/2179460X12629
Herrero, M., Thornton, P. K., Notenbaert, A. M., Wood, S., Msangi, S., Freeman, H. A., Bossio, D., Dixon, J., Peters, M., van de Steeg, J., Lynam, J., Rao, P. P., Macmillan, S., Gerard, B., McDermott, J., Sere, C., & Rosegrant, M. (2010). Smart Investments in Sustainable Food Production: Revisiting Mixed Crop-Livestock Systems. Science, 327(5967), 822–825. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1183725
Hughes, H.D., Heath, M.E., & Metcalfe, D.S. (1952). Forages: The Science of Grassland Agriculture. https://doi.org/10.2307/3894695
Humphrey, J.F. (2017). IFAD RESEARCH SERIES 11 - Food Safety, Trade, Standards and the Integration of Smallholders into Value Chains: A Review of the Literature. HOLD - Biology & Law eJournal TOPICS.
Hussain, F., & Durrani, M.J. (2007). FORAGE PRODUCTIVITY OF ARID TEMPERATE HARBOI RANGELAND, KALAT, PAKISTAN.
Iqbal, M.S., & Hofstra, N. (2018). Modeling Escherichia coli fate and transport in the Kabul River Basin using SWAT. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 25, 1279 - 1297. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1487276
Islam, Z., Kokash, D. M., Babar, M. S., Uday, U., Hasan, M. M., Rackimuthu, S., Essar, M. Y., & Nemat, A. (2022). Food Security, Conflict, and COVID-19: Perspective from Afghanistan. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 106(1), 21–24. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.21-1058
Jin, X., Zhang, N., Zhao, Z., Bai, Z., & Ma, L. (2021). Nitrogen budgets of contrasting crop-livestock systems in China. Environmental pollution, 288, 117633. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117633
Kakar, F., Akbarian, Z., Leslie, T.J., Mustafa, M.L., Watson, J., van Egmond, H.P., Omar, M.F., & Mofleh, J. (2010). An Outbreak of Hepatic Veno-Occlusive Disease in Western Afghanistan Associated with Exposure to Wheat Flour Contaminated with Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids. Journal of Toxicology, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1155/2010%2F313280
Kakar, K., Xuan, T., Haqani, M., Rayee, R., Wafa, I., Abdiani, S., & Tran, H.-D. (2019). Current Situation and Sustainable Development of Rice Cultivation and Production in Afghanistan. Agriculture, 9(3), 49. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture9030049
Kamkar, B. (2014). The Effect of Crop Residues on Soil Nitrogen Dynamics and Wheat Yield. Advances in Plants & Agriculture Research, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.15406/apar.2014.01.00004
Karamatullah Fazil, Das, T. K., Nath, C. P., Nazir, R., & M. Samim. (2022). Nitrogen and weed management effects on weeds and yield of barley in Kandahar, Afghanistan. Indian Journal of Weed Science, 54(3), 309–313. https://doi.org/10.5958/0974-8164.2022.00055.7
Kassam, K.-A. S. (2010). Pluralism, Resilience, and the Ecology of Survival: Case Studies from the Pamir Mountains of Afghanistan. Ecology and Society, 15(2). https://doi.org/10.5751/es-03485-150208
Kebede, G., Assefa, G., Feyissa, F., & Mengistu, A. (2016). Forage Legumes in Crop-Livestock Mixed Farming Systems - A Review -. International Journal of Livestock Research, 6, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.5455/IJLR.20160317124049
Khan, M. (2024). Effects of Carbon Dioxide and Nitrogen Oxides on Climate Change in Afghanistan. Nature Environment and Pollution Technology. https://doi.org/10.46488/nept.2024.v23i03.054
Klem, B., Douma, P., G.E. Frerks, G. Gompelman, & van. (2008). The struggle after combat: the role of NGOs in DDR processes: synthesis study. https://doi.org/10.5167/uzh-17382
Kock, T., Harder, A., & Saisi, P. (2010). The Provision of Extension Services in Afghanistan: What is Happening? Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education, 17(1), 5–12. https://doi.org/10.5191/jiaee.2010.17101
KOHISTANI, A. W., & CHOUDHARY, A. K. (2019). Influence of applied nitrogen on productivity, profitability and resource-use efficiency in winter barley (Hordeum vulgare) under semi–arid conditions of Afghanistan. The Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 89(4). https://doi.org/10.56093/ijas.v89i4.88876
Kugbei, S. (2011). Efficiency of Wheat Seed Production and Crop Diversification in Afghanistan. Journal of Crop Improvement, 25(3), 191–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427528.2011.547751
Kumar, R., Kumar, D., Datt, C., Govind Makarana, Malu Ram Yadav, & Birbal. (2018). Forage Yield and Nutritional Characteristics of Cultivated Fodders as Affected by Agronomic Interventions: A Review. 35(4), 373–373. https://doi.org/10.5958/2231-6744.2018.00057.9
Kumar, R., Malu Ram Yadav, ARIF, M., Deep Mohan Mahala, Kumar, D., Prakash Chand Ghasal, Yadav, K., & Rakesh Kumar Verma. (2020). Multiple agroecosystem services of forage legumes towards agriculture sustainability: An overview. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 90(8), 1367–1377. https://doi.org/10.56093/ijas.v90i8.105882
Lantinga, E. A., Oomen, G. J. M., & Schiere, J. B. (2004). Nitrogen Efficiency in Mixed Farming Systems. Journal of Crop Improvement, 12(1-2), 437–455. https://doi.org/10.1300/j411v12n01_07
Larson, J. A., Roberts, R. K., Tyler, D. D., Duck, B. N., & Slinsky, S. P. (1998a). Nitrogen-Fixing Winter Cover Crops and Production Risk: A Case Study for No-Tillage Corn. Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics, 30(1), 163–174. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1074070800008142
Larson, J. A., Roberts, R. K., Tyler, D. D., Duck, B. N., & Slinsky, S. P. (1998b). Stochastic dominance analysis of winter cover crop and nitrogen fertilizer systems for no-tillage corn. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 53(3), 285–288.
Lu, Y.-C., Teasdale, J. R., & Huang, W.-Y. (2003). An Economic and Environmental Tradeoff Analysis of Sustainable Agriculture Cropping Systems. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, 22(3), 25–41. https://doi.org/10.1300/j064v22n03_05
Makkar, H.P., Siddhuraju, P., & Becker, K. (2007). Nitrate and Nitrite. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59745-425-4_7
Maletta, H.E. (2004). The Grain and the Chaff: Crop Residues and the Cost of Production of Wheat in Afghanistan in a Farming-System Perspective. Agricultural & Natural Resource Economics. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.571343
McFarlane, J. A. (1988). Storage Methods in Relation to Post-Harvest Losses in Cereals. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science, 9(06), 747–754. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1742758400005634
Mhango, W. G., Snapp, S. S., & Phiri, G. Y. K. (2012). Opportunities and constraints to legume diversification for sustainable maize production on smallholder farms in Malawi. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 28(3), 234–244. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1742170512000178
Mohammad, S., & Khalid, N. (2015). Full Length Research Article ASSESSMENT OF THE CURRENT FOOD SAFETY REGULATORY SYSTEM IN AFGHANISTAN AND ITS FUTURE WITH A NEW INDEPENDENT REGULATORY STRUCTURE.
N’Dayegamiye, A., Whalen, J. K., Tremblay, G., Nyiraneza, J., Grenier, M., Drapeau, A., & Bipfubusa, M. (2015). The Benefits of Legume Crops on Corn and Wheat Yield, Nitrogen Nutrition, and Soil Properties Improvement. Agronomy Journal, 107(5), 1653–1665. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj14.0416
Obaidullah Alimyar. (2020). Traditional Processes of Food (Fresh and Dried Fruits) Production and Storage in Afghanistan and Their Impact on Humans’ Health. International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development.
Oliveira, J.G., Luiz Santana Júnior, M., Jaqueline Costa Maia, N., Batista Dubeux Junior, J.C., Hauber Gameiro, A., Kunrath, T.R., Geraldi Mendonça, G., & Fernanda Simili, F. (2022). Nitrogen balance and efficiency as indicators for monitoring the proper use of fertilizers in agricultural and livestock systems. Scientific Reports, 12. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-15615-7
Ott, S. L., & Hargrove, W. W. (1989). Profits and risks of using crimson clover and hairy vetch cover crops in no-till corn production. 4(2), 65–70. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0889189300002745
Pannell, D. J. (2017). Economic perspectives on nitrogen in farming systems: managing trade-offs between production, risk and the environment. Soil Research, 55(6), 473. https://doi.org/10.1071/sr16284
Pell, A. N. (1997). Manure and Microbes: Public and Animal Health Problem? Journal of Dairy Science, 80(10), 2673–2681. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(97)76227-1
Peoples, M. B., Boyer, E. W., Goulding, T., Heffer, P., Ochwoh, V. A., B. Vanlauwe, Wood, S., Yagi, K., & O. van Cleemput. (2004). Pathways of nitrogen loss and their impacts on human health and the environment. 53–69.
Poole, N., Sharma, R., Nemat, O.A., Trenchard, R., Scanlon, A., Davy, C., Ataei, N., Donovan, J., & Bentley, A.R. (2022). Sowing the wheat seeds of Afghanistan's future. PLANTS, PEOPLE, PLANET. https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp3.10277
Powell, J. M., Pearson, R. A., & Hiernaux, P. H. (2004). Crop–Livestock Interactions in the West African Drylands. Agronomy Journal, 96(2), 469. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj2004.0469
Qudratullah Soofizada, Pescatore, A., Rahmatullah Atefi, Grassi, C., Orlandini, S., & Napoli, M. (2023). Evaluation of Nitrogen and Phosphorus Responses on Yield, Quality and Economic Advantage of Winter Wheat (Triticum aestivum, L.) under Four Different Agro-Climatic Zones in Afghanistan. Agronomy, 13(2), 345–345. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13020345
Rizvi, S., Sharma, R., Srinivas, T., Manan, A., A. Osmanzai, Siddiqui, S., K. Wadan, Hakimi, N., & Rahmani, A. (2012). Comparative evaluation of local and improved crop varieties through farmers’ participation on resource-poor farms in Afghanistan. Acta Agronomica Hungarica, 60(1), 11–20. https://doi.org/10.1556/aagr.60.2012.1.2
Rufino, M. C., Brandt, P., Herrero, M., & Butterbach-Bahl, K. (2014). Reducing uncertainty in nitrogen budgets for African livestock systems. Environmental Research Letters, 9(10), 105008. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/9/10/105008
S HAMIDULLAH MOZAFARI, DASS, A., CHOUDHARY, A. K., O RAIHAN, & RAJANNA, G. A. (2020). Effect of moisture conservation and integrated nutrient management on summer maize (Zea mays) in Kandahar, Afghanistan. The Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 90(1), 236–239. https://doi.org/10.56093/ijas.v90i1.98693
Safi, Z., & Buerkert, A. (2011). Heavy metal and microbial loads in sewage irrigated vegetables of Kabul, Afghanistan. DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals).
SAFI, Z., DOSSA, L. H., & BUERKERT, A. (2011). ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF CEREAL, VEGETABLE AND GRAPE PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN URBAN AND PERI-URBAN AGRICULTURE OF KABUL, AFGHANISTAN. Experimental Agriculture, 47(4), 705–716. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0014479711000482
Salihi, M.S., & Himatkhwah, R. (2024). Impacts of Climate-smart Agriculture on Crop Production: A Review. Journal of Natural Science Review. https://doi.org/10.62810/jnsr.v2i4.99
Sarwary, M., Rahimzai, R., & Durani, A. (2024). The Impact of Climate Change on Socio-Economic and Migration as Adapted Coping Strategies in the Eastern Agro-Climatic Zone of Afghanistan. Nangarhar University International Journal of Biosciences. https://doi.org/10.70436/nuijb.v3i02.192
Sarwary, M., Senthilnathan, S., Vidhyavathi, A., & Kokilavani, S. (2020). Socio-economic Impact of Climate Change, Adaptation and Determinants of Willingness to Pay for Crop Insurance in Central Agro-climatic Zone of Afghanistan. Current Journal of Applied Science and Technology, 83–92. https://doi.org/10.9734/cjast/2020/v39i1630739
Schiere, H., & Kater, L. (2001). Mixed crop-livestock farming: a review of traditional technologies based on literature and field experiences.
Shakeri, A., Hosseini, H., Rastegari Mehr, M., & Dashti Barmaki, M. (2022). Groundwater quality evaluation using water quality index (WQI) and human health risk (HHR) assessment in Herat aquifer, west Afghanistan. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 28, 711 - 733. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2022.2075316
Shehu Garki Ado, & Abubakar, A. S. (2024). Towards Self-Sufficient Agriculture in Afghanistan: A Review of Enhancements and Challenges. Journal of Natural Science Review, 2(Special.Issue), 316–331. https://doi.org/10.62810/jnsr.v2ispecial.issue.135
Singer, J. W., Chase, C. A., & Karlen, D. L. (2003). Profitability of Various Corn, Soybean, Wheat, and Alfalfa Cropping Systems. Crop Management, 2(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1094/cm-2003-0130-01-rs
Snappa, S.S., Rohrbachb, D.D., Simtowec, F., & Freemand, H.A. (2002). Sustainable soil management options for Malawi : can smallholder farmers grow more legumes ?
Stanikzai, A. N., Ali, F., & Kamarulzaman, N. H. (2021). Vulnerabilities of wheat crop farmers in war zone. Food Research, 5(2), 427–439. https://doi.org/10.26656/fr.2017.5(2).506
Stathers, T., Lamboll, R., & Brighton Mvumi. (2013). Post-harvest agriculture in a changing climate.
Tarawali, G. (2003). A synthesis of the crop–livestock production systems of the dry savannas of West and Central Africa.
Tavva, S., Aw-Hassan, A., Rizvi, J., & Saharawat, Y. S. (2017). Technical efficiency of wheat farmers and options for minimizing yield gaps in Afghanistan. Outlook on Agriculture, 46(1), 13–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/0030727016689632
Tibagonzeka, J. E., Akumu, G., Kiyimba, F., Atukwase, A., Wambete, J., Bbemba, J., & Muyonga, J. H. (2018). Post-Harvest Handling Practices and Losses for Legumes and Starchy Staples in Uganda. Agricultural Sciences, 09(01), 141–156. https://doi.org/10.4236/as.2018.91011
Wafa, S. (2024). The Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture in Afghanistan: A Review. Journal of Natural Science Review. https://doi.org/10.62810/jnsr.v2ispecial.issue.133
Xu, R., Zhao, H., Liu, G.-B., Li, Y., Li, S., Zhang, Y.-J., Liu, N., & Ma, L. (2022). Alfalfa and silage maize intercropping provides comparable productivity and profitability with lower environmental impacts than wheat–maize system in the North China plain. 195, 103305–103305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2021.103305
Yon, H., Parihar, C.M., Mohammadi, N., Jat, S.L., Meena, B.R., Patra, K., Nayak, H.S., Kumar, K., Parihar, M.D., Makakzai, M.Y., Mandal, B.N., & Singh, R. (2024). Impact of irrigation and nitrogen management on crop performance, yield and economics of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) in Kandahar region of Afghanistan. The Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences. https://doi.org/10.56093/ijas.v94i1.123726
DOI: https://doi.org/10.46676/ij-fanres.v6i3.518
Refbacks
- There are currently no refbacks.